The Battle of Guilford Courthouse

(Cover art from Soldiers of the American Revolution by H. Charles McBarron)

The Battle of Guildford Courthouse, which took place in modern-day Greensboro, North Carolina, was a fierce battle between the military minds of General Nathanael Greene and General Charles Cornwallis. It was the first major engagement between the American and British armies following the famous “Race to the Dan” in early 1781, and proved to be a violent exchange. Although the battle did not result in a patriot victory, it proved to be one more step towards the British Army’s demise in the south.

History

On February 22, 1781, Continental General Nathanael Greene led his army south across the Dan River into North Carolina (advance patriot forces had crossed on the 19th). Just over a week prior, the American forces had executed a rapid and strategic retreat across that very river northward into Virginia, after out-running Cornwallis’ pursuing British Army (this is today known as the “Race to the Dan”). But after a brief period of rest, replenishment, and reinforcement, Greene was ready to move his force back into North Carolina. Around that same time, General Charles Cornwallis and his army were encamped at Hillsborough, while Tarleton’s British Legion maneuvered west of the Haw River in order to protect and rally local tories.

On February 25th, an important prelude to the Battle of Guilford Courthouse occurred. An engagement known as Pyle’s Massacre (also known as Pyle’s Defeat) was fought, in which nearly 400 tories under command of Colonel John Pyle were struck by Lee’s Legion (cavalry and troops under command of Lt. Colonel Henry Lee). As Lee’s force approached Pyle’s men, the tories mistook the green-jacketed men of Lee’s Legion as that of the British Legion. This fatal mistake allowed the patriots to come in close and after fighting erupted, approximately 90 tories were sabered to death (most of the others escaped into nearby woods and swamps). This event severely curtailed any loyalist support for the British Army.

By March 14th, General Greene and his army had arrived at Guilford Courthouse. That evening, General Cornwallis learned that the American army was but 12 miles away and immediately prepared his men to move. By 5:30AM on March 15th, the British Army began a determined march down the Great Salisbury Road (today’s New Garden Road). Early that morning, dragoons and infantry under Lt. Colonel Henry Lee (initially camped ~3 miles west of Guilford Courthouse along the Great Salisbury Road) encountered advance forces of the British Army. It was about 4 miles west of Guilford Courthouse, near the New Garden Meeting House, where patriot forces first fired upon Banastre Tarleton’s dragoons- the Battle of Guilford Courthouse had begun. It was a chilly winter morning as the British Army trod across the damp earth towards the American positions.

Greene organized his army of ~4,400 soldiers into three main lines (a defense in depth), reminiscent of Daniel Morgan’s successful deployment of troops in the Battle of Cowpens. The first line stood near a split-rail fence and was comprised largely of North Carolina militia, along with Virginia riflemen, ~80 of Kirkwood’s Delaware Continentals (and some from Virginia), and cavalry on the flanks. Additionally, a pair of 6-pound cannons stood at the center of this line. Approximately 350 yards behind them was the second American line, comprised of 1,200 Virginia militiamen. Lastly, the third American line was ~550 yards further back, made up of about 1,700 Continental soldiers from Virginia, Delaware, and Maryland.

General Cornwallis halted his approach near the Hoskins Farmstead (~1/4 mile west of the first American line) and formed his 1,900 men into a line of battle. Just after noon, as the British troops appeared along the Great Salisbury Road before the first American line, a 30 minute artillery duel erupted amidst the quiet woods. Shortly thereafter, the British soldiers advanced and received a volley from the American militia. At a distance of 50 yards, the disciplined British soldiers fired a volley and then charged the militia, who fled.

During these opening phases of the battle, the thick and nearly impenetrable woods began to take its toll. As the American first line retreated, the troops on the American left flank under command of Lt. Colonel Henry Lee, who were supposed to fall back to the left flank of the American second line, became disoriented and proceeded southeast. In response, a large group of British and Hessian troops pursued Lee’s men, which led to a fragmented fight away from the main scene of battle.

As the first line fell back, the Virginia militiamen of the American second line opened their ranks to allow the North Carolinians to pass, while they anxiously awaited the oncoming British troops. These Virginians were posted in the woods along the Great Salisbury Road and upon a slight knoll- they were in an advantageous position. The dense woods and underbrush slowed the advancing British troops, who were unable to maintain formation due to the terrain. This led to small pockets of fierce fighting, as the Virginian militiamen put up a stout resistance. But despite the American defense and even General Cornwallis having a horse shot out from under him, the American second line eventually gave way.

The Virginia militia fell back towards the American third line. This line, comprised of Greene’s best troops and two cannon, was positioned on an open hill in front of the court house. The British line of battle closed within 100 feet of the American third line before receiving a heavy volley from the Continental troops; however, the British troops pushed forward, drove the 2nd Maryland Continentals back, and captured the two American 6-pounders.

The battle had reached a critical point- William Washington’s dragoons rushed forward and charged into the British troops, as the 1st Maryland Continentals fought fiercely. One story from this scene of battle was that of Peter Francisco, who fought with William Washington’s cavalry. Legend has it that the large Portuguese-born Peter Francisco (nicknamed the “Virginia Hercules” and the “Giant of the Revolution”) killed 11 men during the battle; however, his own words state that he killed four. At any rate, General Cornwallis witnessed this chaotic melee and ordered grapeshot to be fired. Both American and British troops were hit, but the close fighting was broken up. Around 3:30PM, General Greene ordered his men to withdraw from the field of battle.

Although he initially thought to pursue, General Cornwallis, with only around 1,400 effective troops left, decided to hold back. It was a pyrrhic British victory- Cornwallis lost more than a quarter of his army (93 killed, 413 wounded, and 36 missing), while the American Army suffered 79 killed, 184 wounded, and 1,046 missing (most of the missing were North Carolina militiamen who fled).

Our Visit & Recommendations

Guilford Courthouse National Military Park (2332 New Garden Road, Greensboro, NC 27410) was established in 1917 and preserves around 253 acres of the original battlefield. Furthermore, the National Park Service offers a phenomenal visitor center, complete with a gift shop/bookstore, multiple exhibits, a film, and animated battle map program. We visited on a warm spring day and set aside about two hours to explore the park; however, I’d recommend more time if you plan on walking/hiking the many trails throughout the battlefield.

We began our journey at the visitor center, where we shopped at the bookstore, chatted with a park ranger about the best way to explore the park, and explored the exhibits. There are a ton of remarkable artifacts on display, to include cannon, uniforms, weapons, and the drum and drumsticks that were carried by Luther W. Clark at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. Additionally, there are dozens of musket balls, cannon balls, and other items that were recovered on the battlefield over the years (just a friendly reminder that metal-detecting and artifact hunting is illegal within the park!).

Because the battlefield is quite expansive, it is designed with a one-way, self-guided 2.25 mile long battle road throughout the park that visitors can drive or bike with ease. Along this battle road are eight tour stops, which have small parking areas and interpretive signs that provide a detailed explanation of the battle and what happened at that location. Additionally, there are numerous monuments and gravesites throughout the park.

We followed the prescribed driving tour and planned on visiting each of the eight tour stops (I also decided to walk some of the trails, especially to see the monuments that were off the main road). The National Park Service provides a perfect tour map of the park, which can be attained at the Guilford Courthouse National Military Park visitor center, on the NPS website here, or seen below. I recount our visit based on those eight stops.

Tour stop #1 (American First Line)

Tour stop #1 can be accessed from the visitor center, so I recommend leaving your car in the parking lot and simply walking over to explore the area. Other than the interpretive sign, you will notice a line of stone monuments, which is known as “Monument Row.” This collection of monuments originated with the Guilford Battle Ground Company, who began constructing monuments on the battlefield in 1887. The overall goal of the Guilford Battle Ground Company was to make Guilford Courthouse battlefield the state’s main site to honor its citizens contributions to the American Revolutionary War.

These monuments are dedicated to North Carolina heroes and include those to Brigadier General Jethro Sumner (former Colonel of the Third North Carolina Continental Troops), Captain James Morehead (10th Regiment, North Carolina Continental Line), Major John Daves, and Colonel Arthur Forbis (North Carolina troops). Of note, the Forbis statue stands along the original American first line, which should give you an idea of how the American troops were positioned.

After exploring this area, which is generally where the American first line was positioned and ultimately retreated through, we hopped into the car to begin the counter-clockwise driving tour of the battlefield.

Tour stop #2 (Fragmented Attack)

Tour stop #2 explains what happened here, on the left flank of the American first line. As the North Carolina militia began to retreat, Lt. Colonel Lee’s cavalry and other infantry on this flank began an organized retreat to the southeast, which drew two British regiments in their direction. This led to a “fragmented attack,” where units from both sides were engaged away from the main scene of battle (the actual scene of this fighting took place on land that falls outside of the national park).

As we proceeded to the next tour stop, we were surprised by the number of people walking and running the battle road. Although I suppose the paved road, combined with the nice spring weather we were having, warranted it!

Tour stop #3 (Sustained Firefight)

This stop is located along the American second line, where Virginia militia were formed and where they resisted the oncoming British troops. If you so desire, you can pick up the “Second Line Trail” here, which will take you through the dense woods where much of the second line was positioned and where a lot of the fighting took place. This trail is conveniently connected with other walking trails within the park; however, one can also get mixed up pretty quickly. I recommend bringing a map along so you don’t get disoriented like Lee and his men did!

Tour stop #4 (Expanding Battle)

Tour stop #4 has a few interesting sites to visit. One is the stunning statue dedicated to the Surry County riflemen and their commander, Major Joseph Winston. It was near this location that these men valiantly fought alongside William Campbell and Lee’s Legion against onrushing Hessian troops and Tarleton’s cavalry. During the action that took place near here towards the end of the battle, Richard Taliaferro (one of Winston’s soldiers) was shot and killed, possibly the last American casualty of the battle.

Near the statue you will notice a small fenced-off area, which is the final resting place for two patriots. One is the grave of Major Joseph Winston of the Surry County Militia (who is depicted atop the nearby statue) and the other is the grave of Jesse Franklin, a Major in the Continental Line who later served as governor of North Carolina. In fact, there are other gravesites within the park that make it very sacred ground, indeed.

Tour stop #5 (Battlefield Preservation)

Tour stop #5, which provides an interesting history about the historical interpretation of the Guilford Courthouse battlefield. Back in the late 1800s, the Guilford Battle Ground Company was formed to preserve the battlefield. Its founder, David Schenck, conducted exhaustive research and work to properly interpret the battle and understand what happened where on the battlefield. Based on his research, Schenck believed that the American third line was located here in this field (at tour stop #5) and accordingly, he constructed the cavalry monument at this location. Since his time, further analysis determined that the American third line was actually located 1/4 mile to the east (near today’s tour stop #6). Today, the cavalry monument remains in place, although it is not necessarily an accurate representation of where the fighting took place.

The stone cavalry monument was erected in 1909 and has a large placard on it, dedicated to Peter Francisco. He was a Portuguese-born patriot, who fought alongside William Washington’s cavalry in the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. The monument states that he “slew in this engagement eleven of the enemy with his own broad sword,” although Francisco’s own writing states that he killed four (still an amazing feat).

Tour stop #6 (Guilford Courthouse and the Third Line)

This stop marks the location of where the county court house (built 1775) once stood and where the American third line was formed. Although the Guilford County Courthouse is long gone, there are a few interpretive signs here to explain the history. At this location you can also pick up the American Third Line Trail, which takes you to the slope where the left flank of Greene’s Continentals was positioned.

One interesting bit of history about the Guilford County Courthouse occurred in 1791, when President George Washington visited during his tour of the southern states. Washington did not fight in the southern theater during the Revolutionary War and accordingly, never witnessed those distant battles or battlefields. Thus, he made it a point to visit numerous battlefields and sites from the war throughout his journey, in order to pay his respects and better understand what General Greene and his men went through.

Tour stop #7 (The British Soldier)

This stop leads to a series of trails that will take you amidst the heart of the battlefield, in between the American second and third lines. The thick woods, uneven terrain, and open fields in this area will provide you with a good idea of what the advancing British troops encountered (not to mention the gunsmoke, artillery fire, and whizzing musketballs).

I highly recommend you take the time to walk these trails, because there are numerous monuments scattered throughout (refer to the NPS map) and outstanding views of the battlefield that you will not want to miss. The first monument you will see is dedicated to the British and has an associated sign titled “the British Perspective.” This discusses how despite being outnumbered nearly 2 to 1 and having already fought through two enemy battle lines, the British troops continued to advance towards the American third line- surely their discipline and pride pushed them forward.

Just prior to reaching the historic Great Salisbury Road (New Garden Road), you will encounter another small stone monument on your right. This worn-down marker is dedicated to Lieutenant Colonel Stuart of the Second Battalion of the Queens Guards. During the late phases of the battle, Lt. Colonel Stuart was killed near this spot by Captain John Smith of the First Maryland Regiment, who struck him down with a heavy saber. Although modern research shows that this may not be an entirely accurate position, this monument is still an important reminder that while this clearing is quiet and peaceful today, it was once filled with gunfire and death.

If you go a bit further down the trail, you will reach the historic Great Salisbury Road (New Garden Road), which cuts right down the middle of the battlefield. During our visit, standing along this dirt road was the first time I really understood the grandeur and layout of the battlefield.

This trail will take you to all corners of the battlefield; however, you do not have to walk far to see the other monuments in the vicinity. A stout stone monument marks the site where the 1st Virginia Cavalry under Lt. Colonel William Washington were positioned. It was also in that spot that Captain Griffin Fauntleroy of the 1st Virginia Light Dragoons was mortally wounded.

Another monument is dedicated to the men of Maryland who fought in the battle. The placard on it reads “Maryland’s tribute to her heroic dead – erected by members of the Maryland Historical Society in memory of the soldiers of the Maryland Line, 1781- 1892 – non omnis moriar.” That last phrase is latin for “I shall not wholly die,” which is a beautifully appropriate tribute to the men who fought and died in the Battle of Monmouth.

Near the Maryland Monument is a square fenced off area with a small stone obelisk. This actually marks the grave of three Continental soldiers who died in the battle and are buried there. This marker was established here because in 1888, David Schenck was searching for battlefield artifacts in the area and can upon the bones of three unidentified soldiers, along with uniform buttons that appeared to have “USA” on them (in line with the buttons worn by Continental soldiers). Because of the location of these remains, it was believed that these men belonged to Kirkwood’s Delaware Company. Remarkably, further research eventually identified these three men as William Drew, John Toland, and Cornelius Hagney- all Irish immigrants who fought for the patriot cause.

Lastly, there is a large granite monument dedicated in 1909 to Reverend David Caldwell, who served as both a reverend and physician during the American Revolution. Additionally, he served as a member of the convention that formed the constitution for the state of North Carolina. Caldwell survived the war and died on August 28, 1824.

Tour stop #8 (Greene Monument)

Tour stop #8 is the final stop on the driving tour of Guilford Courthouse Battlefield. After you park, you will immediately notice the large equestrian statue of General Nathanael Greene in the distance. A short trail will take you to the Greene Monument, which is the largest and most impressive monument in the park. The monument was designed by sculptor Francis H. Packer and dedicated on July 3, 1915. The location was intentionally chosen because of its proximity to a train station at the time (the Guilford Battle Ground Company wanted it to attract visitors).

An interpretive sign near the monument highlights an interesting point: “Nathanael Greene’s statue…looks like the monument of a victor. But by the end of the day the British had forced him from the field.” Of course, the battle ended essentially in a draw, although one could easily argue it was a pyrrhic victory for the British Army, which lost over 1/4 of its men.

Nearby at the tree line is another statue, which honors the three North Carolina signers of the Declaration of Independence. In fact, two of those signers are actually buried here at the statue. In 1894, the bodies of William Hooper and John Penn were reinterred on the Guilford Courthouse battlefield. Although neither men have a direct connection to the battle, the intent was to make Guilford Courthouse battlefield the state’s official Revolutionary War cemetery. Now a bit of history on those two men:

William Hooper was born on June 28, 1742, in Boston, Massachusetts. Young Hooper attended the Boston Latin School before entering Harvard University in 1757, where he graduated in 1760. In 1764, Hooper moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, and began his own law practice. He quickly established himself as a respected lawyer and citizen, even representing the colony in a few cases. He married Anne Clark in 1767, and they had three children over the next five years. During this time, he quickly gained notoriety through appointments. In 1769, he was appointed deputy attorney of the Salisbury District and then in 1770, appointed deputy attorney general for the colony of North Carolina.

Despite his later actions as a patriot, Hooper actually supported the British colonial government in the early 1770s. He worked closely with Governor William Tryon to suppress the rebellious “Regulator” movement and was even present at the Battle of Alamance in 1771! Because of his actions during these years, he was often branded a loyalist; however, that soon changed. In 1773, he was elected to the North Carolina General Assembly and slowly came around to support the patriot cause (he realized independence was fated to occur). When this assembly was disbanded by the governor in 1774, he helped establish a new assembly and was also appointed to the Committee of Correspondence. That same year, he was selected to represent North Carolina in the First Continental Congress and subsequently, the Second Continental Congress.

Hooper was not present in Philadelphia during the vote for independence, but returned in time to sign the Declaration of Independence on August 2, 1776. Due to personal financial issues, Hooper resigned from Congress in 1777 and returned to his law practice in North Carolina. When the war shifted to the south, he was on the run from British forces, who burned his houses in Finian and Wilmington. After the war, he moved his family to Hillsborough. On October 14, 1790, Hooper died at the age of 48 from illness (likely malaria that he caught from his flight into the backcountry). He was originally buried in the Presbyterian Churchyard in town.

John Penn was born on May 17, 1741, near Port Royal, Virginia, as the only child to Moses Penn and Catherine Taylor. After a few years of schooling, Penn studied law under his uncle, Edmund Pendleton. In 1763, he married Susannah Lyne, with whom he had three children. After practicing law in Virginia for over 10 years, Penn moved south to Stovall, North Carolina, in 1774. In 1775, Penn was elected to the Provincial Congress and shortly thereafter, the Second Continental Congress (he replaced Richard Caswell). As a delegate, he voted for independence on July 2, 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independence as one of three representatives of North Carolina. In all, he served Congress longer than any other delegate from North Carolina. Interestingly, Penn was criticized by some as having neglected his duties in Congress and was even challenged to a duel by statesman Henry Laurens in 1779; however, the two eventually agreed to drop the matter. Penn lived for only a few years after the war and died on September 14, 1788, at the age of 48 (the same age as Hooper). He was originally buried at his home in Granville County.

Nearby is another monument, which marks the spot where Brigadier General Edward Stevens was wounded “while making a gallant stand with his Virginia troops.” Stevens’ illustrious military career included seeing action in the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, Camden, and of course, Guilford Courthouse. Thankfully, he survived his wounds and went on to witness the British surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781. After the war, he served as a legislator for his native Virginia and then in the state senate.

Legacy

The Battle of Guilford Courthouse was a bloody affair, in which both armies experienced heavy losses. In fact, British General Charles Cornwallis later remarked: “I never saw such fighting since God made me. The Americans fought like demons.” Although the American Army abandoned the field of battle, they inflicted a heavy toll upon the enemy: the British Army experienced a casualty rate of over 25%. While this battle is but one chapter in the southern theater of the Revolutionary War, it proved to be an important moment for the patriot war effort.

Book recommendation: Long, Obstinate, and Bloody: The Battle of Guilford Courthouse, by: Lawrence E, Babits & Joshua B. Howard